The Chaos of Early U.S. Presidential Elections

The elections of 2000 and 2004 were nothing short of amazing considering how hotly contested they were. Unfortunately, that’s more of the rule than the exception. Here are a few scenarios which will make you question the American electoral system.

1796: John Adams vs. Thomas Jefferson
In 1776, the mutual respect of John Adams and Thomas Jefferson was so strong, that each thought the other should write the Declaration of Independence. Ultimately, Jefferson wrote it, but it was Adams who defended the document in front of the Continental Congress. During the American Revolution, the two men shared a common purpose; to free America from the tyranny of Great Britain. Sadly, it would be political exploits during George Washington’s presidency which would ultimately drive these two into one of the most bitter political rivalries in American history. Once the nation was established, Adams and Jefferson had opposing views on the role of the federal government and foreign policy, with Jefferson opting for states’ rights and an alliance with France, while Adams supported a strong central government and an alliance with Britain. It also didn’t help that Jefferson was George Washington’s first Secretary of State, while Adams was Washington’s Vice President. So, the stage was set for a showdown when Washington decided that he would not seek a third term in 1796. In the first contested election in U.S. history, John Adams won by only by three electoral votes! Strangely, election rules at the time stipulated that each member of the Electoral College got two votes, but they had to cast them for separate people. Thus, whoever received the 2nd-highest number of votes would be Vice President. Jefferson, being the 2nd-place vote getter ended up becoming Adams’ VP, which didn’t bode well for the Adams Presidency.

1800: John Adams vs. Thomas Jefferson (Part II)
For four years, Mr. Adams set about strengthening the federal government, as well as ties with Great Britain, much to the chagrin of Mr. Jefferson. One major point of contention was the Alien and Sedition Acts, which greatly expanded the power of the federal government. So great was Jefferson’s opposition to this legislation, that despite being Adams’ Vice President, he set out to undermine him by co-writing the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions. These resolutions stated the opposition to a strong federal government and laid the groundwork for future states’ rights arguments. After four years of undermining the President, Jefferson decided to run again, but this time his political party was better organized. While jockeying for electoral votes, he asked that any elector who cast a vote for him, cast a vote for his running mate, Aaron Burr, with one elector abstaining. This was to prevent what would have likely been a Jefferson presidency with Adams as VP. However, due to miscommunication, every elector who voted for Jefferson also voted for Burr, creating the only tie in U.S. history. Ultimately, the House of Representatives had to resolve the debate, and they chose Jefferson as president. This debacle led to the creation of the 12th amendment, which stipulated that each elector had to cast a distinct vote for President and VP. It was also the pinnacle of the Jefferson-Adams rivalry, which was so strong that Adams didn’t even attend Jefferson’s Inauguration.

1824: John Quincy Adams vs. Andrew Jackson
The Era of Good Feelings was a time of strong national unity and little to no partisanship in government. In fact, James Monroe ran effectively unopposed in 1820 and got all but 1 electoral vote. Four years later, though, it would be a different story, as four men, John Quincy Adams, Andrew Jackson, Henry Clay, and William Crawford would jockey for the presidency. When the dust settled, Andrew Jackson had won a plurality of the popular vote, as well as the electoral vote, but he had not won the majority, which was necessary to assume the presidency. Per the rules of the 12th amendment, the vote goes to the House of Representatives, but they could only choose between the top 3 vote-getters, which left out Clay. Conveniently for Adams, though, Henry Clay was a bitter enemy of Andrew Jackson, in addition to being Speaker of the House. Clay threw all of his support behind Adams, who would win the presidency in just one round of voting. Adams subsequently made Clay his Secretary of State, prompting Jackson supporters to accuse the two of a corrupt bargain, which would cast a pall over Adams’ entire presidency. The Era of Good Feelings was officially over.

1828 Andrew Jackson campaign poster

1860: Abraham Lincoln vs. Everyone Else
The 1850s saw the deterioration of U.S. politics, as the country become increasingly partisan, with many regional rivalries. It also didn’t help that the 14th and 15th Presidents, Franklin Pierce and James Buchanan, respectively, did very little to try to prevent the slide into civil war. Thus, the stage was set in 1860, as the upstart Republican party, led by Abraham Lincoln, took on the fractured Democratic Party, which presented three separate candidates. Needless to say, the lack of unity among the Democrats was their downfall, as Lincoln was able to take a majority of the electoral votes despite winning only 39.8% of the popular vote. Southern states quickly cried foul, as Lincoln had no support in the south, and won by carrying the northeast and upper midwest, which had the majority of the electoral votes. Sadly, barely six weeks after the election, South Carolina seceded from the Union, leaving Lincoln to preside over the most difficult period in American history.

A political cartoon depicting the Democrats trying to keep Lincoln out of the White House (click to enlarge)

1876: Rutherford B. Hayes vs. Samuel Tilden
This was the most disputed election in U.S. history, and the first election in which the winner of the popular vote did not win the electoral vote. With all but 20 electoral votes counted, Tilden held the lead 184-165, but the count was delayed in South Carolina, Louisiana, and Florida due to allegations of fraud and voter intimidation. The vote ultimately had to go to the Electoral Commission, which was made up of 5 representatives, 5 senators, and 5 Supreme Court Justices, 8 of whom were Republican, and 7 of whom were Democrat. Voting along party lines, the commission determined that the 20 disputed votes should go to Hayes, and in exchange, Hayes ended Reconstruction. By the way, this election wasn’t settled until 2 days before the Presidential Inauguration, the closest call in U.S. history.

"A truce - not a compromise, but a chance for high-toned gentlemen to retire gracefully from their very civil declarations of war" -Thomas Nast

1884, 1888, & 1892: The Elections of Grover Cleveland
In 1884, a young, Democratic upstart from upstate New York shocked the country when he defeated Maine Senator James Blaine for the presidency. Cleveland’s political career was more of a rapid rise to political stardom, as he didn’t get started until 1882, when he was elected Mayor of Buffalo. Then, in 1883, he was elected Governor of New York, before being elected President of the United States in 1884. What’s also amazing about Grover Cleveland is that he was the first Democrat elected after the Civil War, and the only one between 1860-1912. Unfortunately, he could not parlay that early success into another victory in 1888, and he was voted out after just one term, despite the fact that he had won a plurality of the popular vote. Nevertheless, he didn’t give up, and ran again in 1892, this time winning both the popular and electoral vote. This makes Cleveland the only president to serve split terms. He also holds the distinction of being one of only three people (the others being Andrew Jackson and Franklin Roosevelt) to win the popular vote 3 times. Interestingly, though, Cleveland never won a majority of the popular vote, ironically coming the closest in 1888, when he lost the presidency.

"Who Dares Give Battle With Me?"

This is the first in a two-part series. Be sure to subscribe to EiH so you’ll be notified of the second part in the series.

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